Unripe Fruits Research Articles

Profile of Bioactive Components and Antioxidant Activity of Aronia melanocarpa Fruits at Various Stages of Their Growth, Using Chemometric Methods

Aronia (chokeberry, Aronia melanocarpa) is a valuable fruit that combines the health benefits of green tea and red wine and is gaining popularity worldwide. Aronia has a unique chemical composition with strong antioxidant properties, including anthocyanins and chlorogenic acids (CGAs). However, it remains unclear which specific compounds or groups are primarily responsible for the antioxidant properties of chokeberry. Therefore, an analysis of the antioxidant properties of aronia berries based on geographical region and their variability during ripening (from green to frostbitten fruit) was conducted. The fruits were collected from three locations for two years. The aim of our work was to identify the compounds responsible for the antioxidant properties of aronia berry extracts by using chemometric methods. The analyses of anthocyanins and CGAs were performed using HPLC-DAD, and the antioxidant capacity was assessed by FRAP and DPPH methods. The PCA analysis also considered variations in temperature and precipitation. The chemometric analysis revealed a strong correlation between radical-scavenging properties and the content levels of chlorogenic acids. The results obtained in this study show that unripe green chokeberry fruits exhibit the highest antioxidant properties, which can be attributed to the high content of CGAs at this stage.

Starch from Unripe Apples (Malus domestica Borkh) as an Alternative for Application in the Food Industry

This study investigated the properties of starch isolated from the unripe fruit of two apple cultivars (Malus domestica Borkh) grown in southern Poland (Central Europe). The chemical composition of both starches, molecular mass, their granulation, thermal characteristics, swelling characteristics, and rheological characteristics were studied. The starches differed significantly in ash, phosphorus, and protein content. The water-binding capacity at temperatures of 25–65 °C was similar, while differences of 20% appeared at higher temperatures. In contrast, a significant difference was found in the solubility of the two starches in the temperature range of 25–75 °C. The study showed that apple starches have a relatively low tendency to retrograde, with the enthalpy of gelatinization for starch from the Oliwka variety being 40% higher than that from the Pyros variety. However, the starches differed in the hardness of the gels formed, i.e., one variety formed soft gels with an internal structure resistant to external forces, while the other formed hard gels.

Class II knotted-like homeodomain protein SlKN5 with BEL1-like homeodomain proteins suppresses fruit greening intomato fruit.

Knotted1-like homeodomain (KNOX) proteins are essential in regulating plant organ differentiation. Land plants, including tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), have two classes of the KNOX protein family, namely, class I (KNOX I) and class II KNOX (KNOX II). While tomato KNOX I proteins are known to stimulate chloroplast development in fruit, affecting fruit coloration, the role of KNOX II proteins in this context remains unclear. In this study, we employ CRISPR/Cas9 to generate knockout mutants of the KNOX II member, SlKN5. These mutants display increased leaf complexity, a phenotype commonly associated with reduced KNOX II activity, as well as enhanced accumulation of chloroplasts and chlorophylls in smaller cells within young, unripe fruit. RNA-seq data analyses indicate that SlKN5 suppresses the transcriptions of genes involved in chloroplast biogenesis, chlorophyll biosynthesis, and gibberellin catabolism. Furthermore, protein-protein interaction assays reveal that SlKN5 physically interacts with three transcriptional repressors from the BLH1-clade of BEL1-like homeodomain (BLH) protein family, SlBLH4, SlBLH5, and SlBLH7, with SlBLH7 showing the strongest interaction. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of these SlBLH genes confirmed their overlapping roles in suppressing chloroplast biogenesis, chlorophyll biosynthesis, and lycopene cyclization. Transient assays further demonstrate that the SlKN5-SlBLH7 interaction enhances binding capacity to regulatory regions of key chloroplast- and chlorophyll-related genes, including SlAPRR2-like1, SlCAB-1C, and SlGUN4. Collectively, our findings elucidate that the KNOX II SlKN5-SlBLH regulatory modules serve to inhibit fruit greening and subsequently promote lycopene accumulation, thereby fine-tuning the color transition from immature green fruit to mature red fruit.

Atlas pistachio (Pistacia atlantica) unripe fruit extract as a source of phytochemicals with anti-tyrosinase, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties

The current need for biologically active substances that are sustainable, allegedly beneficial to health, and may be employed as ingredients in cosmetic products has encouraged numerous researchers. Pistacia atlantica is known to contain compounds that possess strong biological effects beneficial to health. The objective of this study was the quantification of the polyphenols in unripe Atlas pistachio (AP) fruit extract and the evaluation of hydro-methanolic extract and anthocyanins for their antioxidant, anti-tyrosinase, and antimicrobial effects. The results revealed that the yield of the hydro-methanolic extract was 22.15%, characterized by 75.12 mg GAE/g DM for total phenolics and strong content of hydrolysable tannins (400.16 mg GAE/g DM). 1,1-dimethyl-allyl caffeate, hydroxytyrosol, ellagic acid, rutin, and kaempferol-3-O-glucoside were the most abundant components quantified by HPLC-DAD. The tyrosinase enzyme was significantly inhibited by AP extract (EC50 = 0.70 mg/mL). For the antioxidant properties, the hydrolyzed anthocyanin extract exhibited the best action against reducing power and β-carotene, compared to anthocyanins crude extract and fruits. This extract showed its stronger antibacterial activity. In conclusion, unripe AP fruit is a promising source of diverse phytochemicals that can be applied in medicinal, nutraceutical, and cosmetic applications as antioxidants and antimicrobials.

Gastroprotective Effect of Aqueous Extract of Unripe Musa Paradisiaca (Banana) Fruit in Rats with Experimentally Induced Gastric Lesions

Background: Unripe banana fruit extract is used to relieve stomach distress in some countries. A few studies in India, China, Sudan, Nigeria and South Africa revealed protection of gastric mucosa after exposed to aggressive agent following administration of unripe banana fruit extract in experimental animals. Objective: To determine the protective effect of aqueous extract of unripe Musa paradisiaca (banana) fruit against ethanol induced gastric lesion in rats. Methodology: This was a prospective experimental study carried out in the department of Pharmacology, Dhaka Medical College, Dhaka within the period from January 2015 to June 2015. Aqueous extract of unripe banana fruit was prepared accordingly. Total 24 rats were randomly divided into 4 groups of 6 in each group. Group-A served as a control group and provided with distilled water (5 ml/kg/body weight) orally by gastric tube. Aqueous extract of Musa paradisiaca was administered orally as Group-B: 0.2 mg/kg/body weight/day, Group-C: 0.4 mg/kg/body weight/day and Group-D: 0.8 mg/kg/body weight/day for 7 days. After 7 days, 1 ml absolute ethanol (a known gastric lesion inducing agent) was orally administered to all groups by gastric tube. After 30 minutes of ethanol administration, all rats were sacrificed and dissected. After separating and opening stomachs, observed lesions were examined and measured with some morphological & histological parameters. Obtained data were subjected to analysis by Student’s unpaired t-test. p-value <0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Results: At the end of experiment, Group-A (control) showed a total of 33 gastric lesions. Group-B, Group-C and Group-D showed 22, 20 and 19 stomach lesions respectively. The difference between control group and experiment groups was statistically significant (p<0.01). Conclusion: The unripe banana fruit extract has dose-dependent gastroprotective effect on rats. So, it may be effective in treating peptic ulcer disease. Eastern Med Coll J. July 2023; 8 (2): 19-23

Plant Protection by Tannins Depends on Defence-Related Phytohormones

AbstractPlants produce a wide variety of secondary metabolites to sustain and protect themselves against a wide range of stresses. Among these metabolites, tannins are one of the most abundant polyphenolic compounds, accounting for 25% of the dry weight of leaves, roots and bark of woody plants, but are also abundant in flowering and seed-producing plants. The presence of tannins in these organs serves to protect plants against herbivorous and pathogenic attack through their antidigestive and antimicrobial properties. In addition, tannins play a role in regulating plant growth and development by inhibiting the consumption of unripe fruits due to their astringency. In addition, several studies have also revealed various roles of them under environmental stresses. Tannins can be classified into condensed tannins (CTs), hydrolysable tannins (HTs) and phlorotannins. They are synthesised in plants via the acetate–malonate and shikimic acid pathways. Their accumulation is regulated by several transcription factors during normal development and under different stress conditions. Despite their multiple roles in plant life, information on the regulation of tannin metabolism by defence-related phytohormones is very limited. To cope with biotic and abiotic stresses, plant responses are regulated by defence-related phytohormones such as salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), ethylene (ET) and abscisic acid (ABA), which act as regulators of tannin production under adverse conditions. This review focuses on tannin production, moreover its occurrence, defence potential and regulation by phytohormones under different environmental and biotic stresses, based on the most recent and relevant data. Graphical Abstract

Effects of maturation on bioactive properties, phenolic compounds, fatty acid compositions and nutrients of unripe and ripe sumac (Rhus coriaria L.) fruits

In this study, the effect of maturation on bioactive properties, phenolic compounds, fatty acid compositions and mineral amounts of unripe and ripe sumac fruits were investigated. Unripe and ripe sumac fruits contained 6.11% and 5.80% moisture, 14.35% and 20.85% oil, 1384.52 and 1404.37 mg GAE/100 g total phenol, 1497.62 and 1179.52 mg QU/100 g total flavonoid and 4164.74 and 4037.33 mg/100 g total tannins, respectively. Antioxidant activities (DPPH and FRAP) of unripe and ripe sumac fruits were assigned as 16.44 mmol/kg and 119.20 mg/g to 16.81 mmol/kg and 119.67 mg/g, respectively. The oils exracted from unripe and ripe sumac fruits contained 24.71% and 22.48% palmitic, 2.47% and 2.46% stearic, 43.40% and 43.59% oleic, 27.14% and 30.04% linoleic, and 1.11% and 0.81% linolenic acids, respectively. The protein, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe,Mn and Zn amounts of unripe and ripe sumac fruits were established as 5.59% and 5.22%,1932.89 and 1917.43, 8065.17 and 6440.50, 4236.92 and 5444.90, 959.02 and 1061.52, 186.53 and 196.27, 12.62 and 14.57, 9.81 and 9.71 mg/kg Zn, respectively. Results exhibited some changes depending on maturation situations. The oil and total phenol contents and antioxidant activities of ripe sumac fruits were found to be partially higher than unripe sumac fruits. Gallic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, resveratrol and kaempferol values of ripe sumac fruits were detected higher compared to the results of the some compounds of unripe sumac fruits.

Evaluation of Antioxidant Effects and Estimation of Trace Minerals in Unripe Fruits of Capparis Zeylanica (Aadhandangai) – An Invitro Study.

Capparis zeylanica (Aadhandangai) is a 2- to 5-meter-tall shrub endemic to India and other Asian nations. The leaves are anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-helminthic. Several studies have been carried out to illustrate the medicinal and therapeutic properties of leaf extract. A careful examination of the literature identified no studies on unripe fruits, which are customarily eaten on the festival of Aadi Amavasya (new moon day of July-August). Capparis zeylanica, used for the study was recognised by a team of botanical experts and a marketing expert with an expertise of more than four decades. Unripe fruits were assessed for mineral content and antioxidant DPPH test. The phytochemical analyses were carried out using the procedures outlined. The Roche/Hitachi Cobas 6000 analyser series was used to measure trace elements and minerals such as phosphorus. The fruit showed the presence of antioxidants. The phytochemical studies also revealed proteins, amino acids, and saponins. The fruit was high in calcium and phosphorus (> 48.0 mg/100 gm), but low in zinc and magnesium. It also had vitamin D and B12. The presence of trace minerals and vitamins with anti-oxidant action makes it a food; however, an excess of calcium with phosphorous may cause injury to a weak kidney, therefore an annual and infrequent consumption may have been advised. So far, there is no literature on the plant's immature fruit. This study is the first to demonstrate the utility of the customary practice of annual intake.

Identification of a new α‐glucosidase inhibitor: Alkyl ferulate ester derived from unripe fruits of Solanum torvum Swartz

AbstractIn this study, the phytochemical compositions and α‐glucosidase inhibitory activity of the ethyl acetate extract derived from the unripe fruits of Solanum torvum Swartz have been investigated. The investigation led to the isolation of a new isoferulate fatty alkyl ester, solacanin B (1), in addition to eight known compounds, including lyciumol A (2), ethyl caffeate (3), caffeic acid (4), scopoletin (5), p‐hydroxybenzaldehyde (6), p‐hydroxybenzoic acid (7), vanillic acid (8) and 1‐O‐palmitoylglycerol (9). The structural elucidation of these compounds was achieved through extensive spectroscopic analyses and reference literature. Bioactivity assay of all compounds demonstrated that compounds 1–4, and 7 showed more potent α‐glucosidase inhibition activities, with IC50 values of 48.4, 29.3, 38.8, 95.0, and 186.6 µm, respectively, than that of positive control acarbose (IC50, 214.5 µm).

Case study on management of non healing venous Ulcer with unripe fruits of carica papaya

Case study on management of non healing venous Ulcer with unripe fruits of carica papaya

Changes in the Phenolic, Melatonin, Sugar Contents and Antioxidant Capacity, Depending on Ripening Stage in Different Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas L.) Fruits

AbstractCornelian cherry (CC) is a source of bioactive compounds such as phenolics, melatonin and, vitamin C and used as traditional food and in folk medicine. In this study, we analyzed and compared the variation of some bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity in CC fruits depending on ripening and genotype. CC fruit was sampled at different ripening times (unripe, semi‐ripe and ripe) and the contents of sugars, vitamin C, melatonin and phenolic compounds were analysed by ultra‐fast liquid chromatography (UFLC‐PDA). The results showed that the fruits at the unripe samples had a significantly higher chemical components and antioxidant capacity. Chlorogenic acid, catechin, gallic acid and rutin were the four major phenolic compounds identified in all genotypes. Melatonin concentration of unripe fruits was found to be high in all genotypes (ranged from 1664.78–114.60 ng/mL) and a decrease was detected in ripe fruits. Significant increases in vitamin C and individual sugar contents (glucose and fructose) occurred with advancing maturity. The highest vitamin C concentration was determined as 77.38 mg/100 g during the full ripening period. Antioxidant capacity results determined by both methods showed a decreasing tendency with the ripening of the fruits. Concerning antioxidant activity, DPPH and ABTS scavenging activity were maximal at unripe in all CC genotpes. During the development and maturity periods of fruits, important physiological and biochemical changes occured that affect antioxidant capacity, nutritional and chemical composition.

An In Silico In Vitro and In Vivo Study on the Influence of an Eggplant Fruit (Solanum anguivi Lam) Diet on Metabolic Dysfunction in the Sucrose-Induced Diabetic-like Fruit Fly (Drosophila melanogaster).

Introduction: Africa faces immense food and health insecurity challenges, a problem partly attributed to food loss and waste during postharvest handling and distribution. In the context of research to meet the sustainable development goals, this project specifically addressed the postharvest loss of the ripe indigenous eggplant (Solanum anguivi lam) fruit called "Igba Yinrin" by Yoruba in South-West Nigeria, which is usually discarded in farms. The study was carried out on ripe and unripe fruits to better understand their value by comparing their effects in diabetes treatment. Methods: The study sought to assess the effects of a diet including ripe or unripe mature eggplant fruits in the sucrose-induced diabetic-like fruit fly. Bioactive compounds were identified and quantified with HPLC-UV, while the antioxidant vitamin (A, C, E), carotenoid, and mineral (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, P, and Zn) content was analyzed in the fruits. Extracts were used to investigate their in vitro anti-inflammatory properties on cyclooxygenases (COX 1 and 2), 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX), and anti-diabetes enzymes [α-amylase and α-glucosidase], while extract-supplemented diets (0.25-1% concentration) were fed to the fruit flies for 14 days. Results: Interestingly, the results showed that the ripe fruits had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher total phenol and flavonoid content, as well as a higher content of vitamins, carotenoids, and minerals, than the unripe fruits. The in vivo activities of antioxidant enzymes [superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione transferase (GST)] and the total thiol level increased, while the blood glucose, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels decreased in Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly). An in silico docking analysis showed strong binding affinity of the above-mentioned enzymes under investigation with the ligands hesperidin, naringin, and myricetin, which are bioactive compounds contained in the examined extracts. Conclusions: There was no significant difference in the biological effects of the ripe and unripe fruit extracts on inflammatory and anti-diabetes enzyme activities, which means that the ripe fruit, usually discarded, could serve as a sustainable alternative source of food nutrients.

Amelioration of obesity and inflammation by polysaccharide from unripe fruits of raspberry via gut microbiota regulation

Raspberry, a traditional medicine food homology species, has important benefits in patients with metabolic syndrome. However, the mechanism of raspberry polysaccharides (RP) on obesity remains unclear. In our study, we showed that RP intervention is negatively associated with body weight gain, hyperlipidemia, inflammation, and fat accumulation in obese mice. RP ameliorated HFD-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis, produced short-chain fatty acids, maintained intestinal barrier integrity, and prevented metabolic endotoxemia, manifested by decreased host lipopolysaccharide level, and increased colon expression of tight junction proteins. These effects might be related with driven by a SCFAs-producing bacterium and downregulation of TLR4/NF-κB signaling transduction. Notably, the abundance of Ruminococcaceae_UCG − 014, Lactobacillus taiwanensis, Bifidobacterium pseudolongum, and Turicibacter are markedly correlated with enhanced intestinal barrier function induced by RP treatment. Thus, we believe that RP could be as a potential health supplement or prebiotic for obesity therapy.

Effects of plants with presumed cardiotonic properties on the decreased contractility of isolated guinea pig atria caused by acetylcholine: Implications for their clinical usefulness

Heart failure (HF) has been related to a chronic imbalance between autonomic sympathetic and parasympathetic activation. In the Republic of Suriname (South America), this condition is regularly treated with plant-derived preparations with presumed cardiotonic properties, mostly by traditional healers. In this study, aqueous extracts from Annona muricata (leaf), Mansoa alliacea (leaf), Momordica charantia (leaf and stem), Gossypium barbadensis (leaf), Artocarpus altilis (leaf), Chrysophyllum cainito (leaf), Solanum melongena (unripe fruit), and Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (leaf and stem) were evaluated at serial dilutions for their capability to reverse the decreased contractility and for their effects on the decreased beating frequency of isolated guinea pig atria caused by EC50 acetylcholine (10-7 M). The effects of the plant extracts alone were also investigated. Experiments were for 3 min with 2 x 2-min intervals in Ringer-Locke buffer, 100% O2, and 30 °C. Results (g/sec and beats/min, means ± SDs; n ≥ 3) were expressed relative to those found with acetylcholine alone or buffer alone, and compared for statistically significant differences using one-way ANOVA (p &lt; 0.05). None of the extracts reversed the decreased contractility and beating frequency of the atria caused by acetylcholine, but those from M. alliacea (0.001 mg/mL) and S. melongena (0.001 and 0.01 mg/mL) lowered these activities by more than 50%. The latter extracts exerted similar effects on their own. Thus, the preparations did not display useful cardiotonic properties against parasympathetic abnormalities in HF, and those from M. alliacea and S. melongena might even be cardiotoxic, warranting care when they are medicinally used.

Classification of Makasar Fruit Extract (Brucea javanica L. Merr.) Based on The Level of Ripeness Using a Combination of FTIR and UV-Vis Spectroscopy with Chemometrics

Makasar fruit (Brucea javanica L. Merr) is a medicinal plant frequently utilized in Indonesia for its anti-malarial, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties. This research aims to classify extracts from B. javanica fruits based on their ripeness levels using a combination of FTIR and UV-Vis spectroscopy with chemometrics. Makasar fruits were extracted using methanol assisted by ultrasonic technology, resulting in a higher yield of extract from ripe fruit (black in color) than unripe fruit (green in color). The FTIR spectrum was measured at wavenumbers ranging from 4000 to 600 cm-1, while the UV-Vis spectrum was measured at wavelengths ranging from 200 to 800 nm. Notably, the UV-Vis spectrum revealed absorption peaks at 206 nm, attributed to the quassinoid group, and 265 nm, associated with the flavonoid group. Simultaneously, the FTIR spectrum showed various functional groups, including O-H, C-H, δ-lactone, C=C aromatic stretching vibrations, and C-O-C bending vibrations. Before conducting chemometric analysis, the FTIR and UV-Vis spectra were pre-processed as baseline and SNV. The research findings demonstrate that by employing UV-Vis and FTIR spectra in combination with chemometrics, it has been possible to distinguish Makasar fruit according to its ripeness level. Ripe and unripe fruit extracts were grouped with PC values of 88% for UV-Vis and 90% for FTIR, indicating distinct profiles between ripe and unripe fruit extracts of Brucea javanica.

Antioxidant Activity Analysis of Native Actinidia arguta Cultivars.

Kiwiberry (Actinidia arguta) is a perennial fruit tree belonging to the family Actinidiaceae. Kiwiberries are known to have an extremely high concentration of sugars, phenolics, flavonoids, and vitamin C, and possess delicious taste and health-promoting properties. Numerous studies have focused on kiwiberry fruits, demonstrating that they possess a higher phytochemical content and greater antioxidant activities than other berry fruits. The purpose of this study was to compare the phytochemical content and antioxidant potential of leaf, stem, root, and fruit extracts from twelve kiwiberry cultivars grown in Wonju, Korea, characterized by a Dwa climate (Köppen climate classification). In most kiwiberry cultivars, the total phenolic (TPC) and total flavonoid (TFC) phytochemical content was significantly higher in leaf and stem tissues, while the roots exhibited higher antioxidant activity. In fruit tissues, the TPC and TFC were higher in unripe and ripe kiwiberry fruits, respectively, and antioxidant activity was generally higher in unripe than ripe fruit across most of the cultivars. Based on our results, among the 12 kiwiberry cultivars, cv. Daebo and cv. Saehan have a significantly higher phytochemical content and antioxidant activity in all of the tissue types, thus having potential as a functional food and natural antioxidant.

Metabolomics and in-vitro bioactivities studies of fermented Musa paradisiaca pulp: A potential alpha-amylase inhibitor

The in-vitro synthesis of bio-compounds via fermentation is a promising route for bioactive molecules intended for disease control and management. Therefore, this study evaluated the effect of fermentation on the antioxidants, antihyperglycemic and anti-inflammatory properties and the resultant chemometric phytochemical profiles of unripe plantain fruits. The results revealed that Escherichia coli and Propionibacterium spp. are suspected as the key fermenters. The E coli showed negative results to the pathogenicity test; Propionibacterium appeared to be opportunistic. A significant increase in the total polyphenols and protein and decreased flavonoids was recorded in the phytochemical profile of the methanolic extract of the fermented unripe plantain pulp; however, the ascorbic acid content was not significantly altered. The 1H NMR fingerprint showed that there is a closely related chemical shift among the shorter fermentation time (days 2–6) and the unfermented, while the more extended fermentation periods (days 7–12) with enhanced bioactivities were closely related based on the chemometrics analyses. Furthermore, the UPLC-QTOF-MS analysis annotated the presence of bioactive compounds in the day-9 fermented sample: polyhydroxy glucose conjugates (3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl 6-O-(3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoyl)-beta-D-glucopyranoside), short chain peptide (leucyl-glycyl-glycine), amino acid derivatives (4-Aminophenylalanine, and N-Acetylhistidine), linear and cyclic fatty acid derivatives (palmitoyl putrescine, ricinoleic acid, phytosphingosine, gabalid, rubrenoic acid, 2-aminocyclopentanecarboxylic and cystodienioc acid). The synergistic effect of these newly formed compounds and the increase in the phenolic content of the day-9 fermented unripe plantain may account for its more potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antihyperglycemic activity. Therefore, the products obtained from the day 9 fermentation of unripe plantain pulp may serve as potential nutraceutical agents against gastro-enteric sugar digestion and absorption and sugar-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and metabolic disease.

Transcriptome analysis of green and purple fruited pepper provides insight into novel regulatory genes in anthocyanin biosynthesis.

Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is a valuable horticultural crop with economic significance, and its purple fruit color is attributed to anthocyanin, a phytonutrient known for its health-promoting benefits. However, the mechanisms regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis in pepper have yet to be fully elucidated. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was utilized to analyze the transcriptome of fruits from three purple-fruited varieties (HN191, HN192, and HN005) and one green-fruited variety (EJT) at various developmental stages. To determine the relationships between samples, Pearson correlation coefficients (PCC) and principal component analysis (PCA) were calculated. Differential expression analysis was performed using the DESeq2 package to identify genes that were expressed differently between two samples. Transcription factors (TF) were predicted using the iTAK program. Heatmaps of selected genes were generated using Tbtools software. The unripe fruits of HN191, HN192, and HN005, at the stages of 10, 20, and 30 days after anthesis (DAA), display a purple color, whereas the unripe fruits of variety EJT remain green. To understand the molecular basis of this color difference, five transcriptome comparisons between green and purple fruits were conducted: HN191-10 vs EJT-10, HN191-20 vs EJT-20, HN191-30 vs EJT-30, HN192-30 vs EJT-30, and HN005-30 vs EJT-30. Through this analysis, 503 common differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. Among these DEGs, eight structural genes related to the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway and 24 transcription factors (TFs) were detected. Notably, one structural gene (MSTRG.12525) and three TFs (T459_25295, T459_06113, T459_26036) exhibited expression patterns that suggest they may be novel candidate genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis. These results provide new insights into the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis in purple pepper fruit and suggest potential candidate genes for future genetic improvement of pepper germplasm with enhanced anthocyanin accumulation.

Characterization and evaluation of flour's physico-chemical, functional, and nutritional quality attributes from edible and non-edible parts of papaya

Papaya fruits different edible and non-edible portions are valued for the abundance of numerous nutrients and therapeutic benefits. The study was aimed to examine the physico-chemical properties, bioactive compounds (total phenolics and total flavonoids), antioxidant activity and microstructure analysis of the peel, pulp and seed flour of both ripe and unripe papaya. The results demonstrated the different portions of both ripe and unripe papaya fruit flour differed significantly with respect to almost all quality attributes within them. The physico-chemical variations have been evaluated through evaluation of the pH, moisture content, TSS, and ascorbic acid content of the papaya fruits during both ripening stages. Statistically significant variations (p < 0.05) were observed between two distinct stages of ripening. The concentration of ascorbic acid in the fruit revealed a notable increase as it matured, while the pH, moisture, and TSS all exhibited a substantial decrease (p < 0.05) during the immature stage. The unripe peel showed the most significant level of bulk density, tapped density, swelling capacity, crude fiber, and TFC whereas the unripe seed showed the highest value of ash, crude fat, and TPC. For the rest of the value, ripe pulp and seed flour showed a significantly higher value than others. The total phenolic content in seed flour and the total flavonoid content of peel flour were 196.9 ± 0.03 and 164.9 ± 0.08 mgQE/100 g, respectively, at unripe conditions. An immense amount of antioxidant activity was found in ripe (20.48 ± 0.54%) and unripe (16.05 ± 0.32%) peels flour. The flour granules' diverse morphological forms and particle sizes were identified by SEM analysis. The versatility of papaya and its various components provides opportunities for applications in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and agricultural industries. The papaya fruit flour of different portions have unique functional, nutritional, and morphological characteristics that may contribute to the development of gluten free flour based value added baked products.

Non-destructive and destructive physical measurements as indicators of sugar and organic acid contents in strawberry fruit during ripening

Strawberry fruit is appreciated by consumers for its characteristic taste, which can be attributed to the balance between sugars and organic acids content, but strawberries are also a rich source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). This study focuses on the suitability of different physical parameters, such as ripening index (IAD), firmness and total soluble solids content, as indicators of the content of sugars and organic acids during ripening. Five ripening stages were defined - green, white, ripe red, fully ripe dark red and overripe stage at five different cultivars. As the fruit ripened, the content of ascorbic acid, sugars and sugar/acid ratio increased and the organic acids content decreased, but the changes varied among cultivars. The ripening index (IAD) strongly correlated with the total sugar content (r = -0.72), total organic acids content (r = 0.70) and sugar/acid ratio (r = -0.82). Additionally, firmness correlated well with the content of sugars and organic acids. On the other hand, TSS showed a weaker correlation with the total sugar content (r = 0.38). Although, both the ripening index (IAD) and firmness showed strong correlations with sugars and organic acids content and can help distinguish unripe fruit from ripe fruit, the use of these parameters for distinguishing between different of ripe fruit (from early ripe to overripe) can be limited only to certain cultivars.